In 1682, the ten-year-old Peter ascended the Russian throne. However, it was not until August 1689, when the conspiracy by Princess Sophia to launch a palace coup was crushed, that Peter truly seized power. During his reign, Tsar Peter vigorously implemented numerous reforms in the political, economic, and cultural aspects of the Russian state, making significant contributions and guiding Russia onto a path of rapid development. Therefore, he became known as "Peter the Great," and Engels also referred to Peter as a "true great man."
In the late 17th century, the Netherlands and Britain had completed their bourgeois revolutions and embarked on a path of rapid capitalist development. Countries such as France, Sweden, and Denmark also experienced significant growth. However, Russia remained under serfdom, with agricultural production at a semi-primitive stage and industry and commerce underdeveloped, making it a backward nation. Backwardness invites aggression. Russia's then most economically developed regions were almost completely destroyed by invasions from Poland and Sweden. The estuaries of the Dnieper and Don rivers were occupied by the Turks, and the Gulf of Finland was seized by the Swedes. Due to the lack of seaports, Russia lost the possibility of widely utilizing maritime transport—a cheap mode of transportation—severely restricting foreign trade and stalling economic and cultural development.
To break this isolated, self-secluded state, Peter the Great simultaneously worked to open seaports and planned to build his own naval fleet.
Naturally, establishing a fleet required officers proficient in naval affairs, and building shipyards demanded skilled craftsmen in shipbuilding. Yet, at that time, Russia had neither naval officers nor shipbuilding craftsmen. Peter the Great took decisive measures, selecting fifty young noblemen to study abroad, learning naval operations and shipbuilding techniques. These students had to abandon their previous lives of luxury at home, allowed only one attendant each, and paid their own way to distant foreign countries such as Italy, Britain, and the Netherlands to learn everything necessary to make Russia a strong nation. Moreover, they had to obtain a qualified graduation certificate before being allowed to return home; anyone who dropped out would have all their property confiscated by the Tsar!
At the same time, adhering to his consistent principle of leading by example, Peter the Great announced he would personally join a "Grand Embassy" to visit various Western European countries, learn about their scientific advancements, and seek diplomatic and military assistance from Western Europe to jointly oppose Turkey. Additionally, for the future navy, they needed to recruit experienced sailors and captains from Western Europe and purchase cannons, firearms, and various tools.
However, Peter the Great's decision to travel abroad meant a break from old traditions. In Russian history, only one monarch had ever visited Germany, and that was 600 years ago. Since then, successive Russian rulers had kept their country closed and never ventured out, as crossing national borders seemed like betrayal. On December 6, 1696, when Peter the Great announced his decision to the nobility council, most nobles were shocked. They could not comprehend how Peter the Great could have such a bizarre idea! In their minds, traveling to a foreign land far from home was undignified. Eating foreign bread was beneath the dignity of the Tsar. They offered weak criticisms of the Tsar, but Peter the Great remained unmoved.
The countries visited by the Grand Embassy included the Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Italy, Denmark, and Britain. France, which supported Turkey's aggression against Russia, was excluded from the list. The embassy members included three ambassadors: Lefort, Fyodor, and Voytsekhin, with Lefort serving as the chief ambassador. Each ambassador brought twelve gentlemen as attendants. Accompanying them were also 35 "volunteers," whose mission was to interact with and learn from foreigners. Among them was a man named Pyotr Mikhailov, who was actually Peter the Great. He used this pseudonym to conceal his true identity, allowing him to mingle with the crowd, command everything, observe everything, and learn everything without being discovered by foreigners. He strictly forbade anyone from revealing his identity to foreigners, and violators would be sentenced to death. To communicate with Russia during the visit, Pyotr Mikhailov specially crafted a jade seal. The design depicted a carpenter serving in the navy, surrounded by carpenter's tools, with the inscription: "My status is that of a student; I need my teacher's guidance." The entourage included translators, internal and external medicine doctors, chefs, priests, guards, and even four dwarfs and a monkey, totaling as many as 250 people. Additionally, for travel expenses, the embassy brought several barrels of gold, large quantities of sable fur rolls, and various foods and barrels of vodka.
All kinds of carriages and freight wagons were ready. On February 23, 1697, Ambassador Lefort held a farewell banquet at his home. Peter the Great attended this banquet. As everyone was enjoying themselves, someone urgently requested an audience with the Tsar, reporting that someone intended to harm him. It turned out that Ivan Tsitsianov, a colonel of the Streltsy who had previously supported Princess Sophia, had taken advantage of the nobles' discontent with the Tsar's visit to incite a group of people to launch a coup, assassinate the "traitorous" Peter the Great, and reinstall Princess Sophia. Peter the Great flew into a rage, rushed out of the banquet hall, ran to Tsitsianov's house, and ordered his arrest. After severe interrogation, Tsitsianov confessed everything. Peter the Great spent ten days severely punishing the rebels; many were killed, and the families of the criminals were all exiled to remote areas.
The conservative faction's rebellion did not affect Peter the Great's travel plans. On March 10, the Grand Embassy left Moscow. However, despite Peter the Great believing his disguise was clever, foreign ambassadors discovered the secret before the embassy's departure and promptly relayed the news that Peter the Great was also part of the Grand Embassy to their respective capitals. The leaders of Western European countries were all puzzled, unable to understand why Peter the Great would adopt such an unconventional approach. But they decided to respect Peter the Great's wishes; since he did not wish to be noticed, they would not concern themselves with his actual identity!
Throughout the journey, the 25-year-old Peter the Great was in high spirits. The Grand Embassy first arrived in Riga, under Swedish jurisdiction. The local governor deliberately ignored the Tsar's presence, coldly received the embassy's arrival, offered a lukewarm welcome, provided only a regular wealthy person's house as accommodation, and the governor himself did not appear, citing illness. Although Peter the Great felt the Riga governor's attitude towards Russian official envoys was overly casual, he had not come abroad for elaborate ceremonies. His goal was to observe more; he and his companions roamed everywhere, asking Swedish officers various questions, drawing plans of fortifications and high points, jumping into ditches to measure depth, and recording various data. This thorough attitude caused great dissatisfaction among local residents, who even suspected these people were not diplomats but spies! Finally, local officers prohibited these overly active guests from entering the city's central fortress. Peter the Great was very annoyed and wrote in a letter: "Here, people treat us like servants; they only entertain our eyes."
The Grand Embassy continued forward. In Mitau, they received a grand welcome, but the city had neither a navy nor a port or notable construction sites, disappointing the Tsar. Thus, he set off for Libau, where he decided to sail across the Baltic Sea to Königsberg, while the main group continued by carriage to meet him there. Peter the Great arrived in Königsberg first. During the days waiting for the Grand Embassy, he began learning artillery from a local artillery colonel. Upon completion of his studies, the colonel issued him a certificate stating: "I taught Pyotr Mikhailov the techniques theoretically and practically every day. In every aspect, his speed of learning and breadth of knowledge astonished those around him. He can certainly be regarded as a worthy, brave, and cautious artillery maker. Therefore, I humbly and cordially request that everyone regard this certificate-holding Pyotr Mikhailov as a fully skilled and professionally proficient artilleryman."
The Grand Embassy arrived in the Netherlands. On the evening of August 7, Peter left the main entourage, taking five attendants and a translator, and sailed from Amsterdam to a small port called Zaandam, as he had heard about this place from several Dutch carpenter friends in Russia. The shipyards, windmills, whale oil refining workshops, clock manufacturing, navigation equipment manufacturing, bustling markets, and wealthy citizens of this small town all attracted Peter the Great's attention. By chance, Peter the Great met Gerrit, a blacksmith who had previously worked in Russia, greeted him, asked him to keep his true identity secret, and then unceremoniously stayed at his house. He slept in a spacious wardrobe with two large doors, with bedding laid on the floor, and insisted on making his own bed and cooking his own meals. To better resemble "Master Pyotr," a carpenter, he bought a set of local boatman's clothing—red short jacket, knee-length tight sleeveless coat with a row of thick, clumsy buttons; baggy trousers, and a conical felt hat. He had loved manual work since childhood, learning over a dozen crafts such as carpentry, blacksmithing, and masonry in his youth, so he could now skillfully use axes and planes. However, he still allocated sufficient time to wander the streets, visiting sawmills, rope-making workshops, oil-milling windmills, and precision tool workshops. Wherever he went, he asked numerous questions and took detailed notes. He bought an old small boat, repaired it himself, erected a mast, installed sails, and then sailed for pleasure on the Zaan River.
The residents of Zaandam quickly learned that this towering Russian was a supremely eminent figure. One of their compatriots, who had written from Russia describing Peter the Great's features, mentioned in the letter that Peter the Great had a "tall stature, a slightly shaking head, right arm constantly in motion, and a small wart on his cheek." This led them to conclude that "Master Pyotr" was the Tsar. People were immensely curious about the Tsar; whenever he went out, a large crowd of inconsiderate people followed him. They watched from a distance as he worked on the construction site and sailed his small boat, and crowds gathered in front of his residence. Once, a man approached Peter, stared at him with his mouth wide open for a long time. Unable to bear it any longer, Peter slapped him hard. The onlookers burst into laughter and shouted at the man, "Good! You've been knighted!" The local mayor had to dispatch guards to disperse the crowd. With no other choice, Peter the Great had to pack up and sail back to Amsterdam on his small boat.
Soon, the Grand Embassy reunited with Peter the Great. The noisy Dutch crowded along both sides of the road to watch the Russian embassy pass by. They saw Russian ambassadors dressed in dazzling, elaborately adorned garments studded with countless pearls and diamonds, riding in luxurious four-wheeled carriages; guards in military uniforms holding silver axes and curved swords; court attendants in bright red uniforms; and finally, a giant sitting alone at the back of a carriage, dressed like a junior officer—who, it was said, was the Tsar. The town authorities showed him respect. He visited the city hall, watched a ballet and a comedy at the theater, drank heavily at endless official banquets, enthusiastically applauded the fireworks as an expert, and enthusiastically participated in a naval combat exercise. However, these celebratory activities did not distract Peter the Great from his serious work. He requested the mayor to grant him access to the massive construction site of the Dutch East India Company. His request was granted, so he went to work as a carpenter under the name Pyotr Timmermans, living in the foreman's house, going to the construction site to work as soon as the sun rose each day. Sometimes, exhausted, he would sit on a piece of timber, clamp the axe between his legs, wipe the sweat from his forehead with the back of his hand, and breathe in the pleasant scent of wood, resin, tar, and brine mixed together.
At the same time, Peter the Great did not allow any idlers in the Grand Embassy; all the "volunteers" were assigned by him to work in construction sites or workshops to learn various crafts: carpentry, shipbuilding, sail and rigging making, navigation, etc. Several months later, the Tsar received a certificate from his master: "Pyotr participated in the entire construction of a three-masted warship with a hull length of 100 French feet from beginning to end. During this process, he proved to be a skilled and dexterous carpenter. Furthermore, under my supervision, he deeply studied the techniques of shipbuilding and the essentials of drawing plans. I believe he is now fully capable of handling this kind of work."
After putting down the axe, Peter the Great set off for The Hague—where the States General was preparing to receive the Grand Embassy. On the journey, the coachman had to stop repeatedly according to Peter's orders, so the Tsar could get off to measure a bridge, visit a windmill, or ask a few questions of the sawmill workers. Upon arriving in The Hague, Peter the Great refused to stay in the luxurious room prepared for him and instead went straight to the "Old Dole Inn," where his servants had been arranged in a humble room, sleeping on a bear skin. Peter kicked his servant awake and said, "Make room for me!" The observing Dutch reception staff were stunned. Later, Peter the Great, who insisted on concealing his identity, did not wish to attend the grand reception. He requested to stay in a room near the banquet hall so he could observe everything happening inside without being seen by others. The Dutch were no longer surprised by this eccentric Tsar's strange requests. Unfortunately, some other members of the Grand Embassy also imitated the Tsar and came to his hiding place. Peter the Great was very unhappy and decided to leave. But to exit, he had to pass through the banquet hall, so he demanded that the members of the Dutch States General assemble and stand facing the wall, allowing him to walk through the hall. The Dutch deputies protested that they could not rudely turn their backs on a monarch, so when the Tsar passed, they all stood up and bowed to him. Peter the Great glared at them fiercely, pulled his wig down to his nose, and stormed out of the hall in anger. Fortunately, after this little incident, the reception continued, and Russia's three ambassadors fulfilled their mission well. Fyodor delivered an excellent lengthy speech, and Lefort presented the hosts with 600 rolls of sable fur. The members of the States General agreed to study the issues raised by the Russian embassy, such as joint opposition to Turkey.
During his visits, Peter the Great was dazzled by everything he saw. His insatiable thirst for knowledge kept him constantly on the move: visiting construction sites, watching whaling fleets return, studying the use of printing presses, listening to medical professors lecture on human anatomy... Although he was an amateur in medicine, he insisted on attending several surgical operations and purchased a set of surgical instruments for himself. Once, he saw a dentist extracting teeth outdoors in a square and became deeply interested in this profession. He quickly learned the essentials of tooth extraction and bought a complete set of equipment. From then on, all 250 members of the Grand Embassy became his "patients." Whenever he thought someone had a dental problem, he immediately extracted the tooth. No one dared to say the Tsar had extracted the wrong tooth, which led Peter the Great to believe for life that he was a highly skilled dentist. Additionally, he preliminarily learned copperplate engraving. His extraordinary and intense thirst for knowledge stemmed entirely from Russia's cultural backwardness. He wished he could instantly become a living encyclopedia to impart the new scientific knowledge he acquired to his fellow countrymen!
Peter the Great's next destination was Britain. King William III of Britain sent his private yacht, escorted by three warships, to welcome Peter the Great. The other members of the Grand Embassy remained in Amsterdam.
On January 7, 1698, Peter the Great boarded the ship and set off for London accompanied by several attendants.
King William III of Britain well understood the preferences of this distinguished guest and appointed the Duke of Marlborough as his guide. They arranged a beautiful house for Peter the Great at 15 Buckingham Street in London, but as usual, Peter the Great treated the luxurious house with disdain. He moved to a much more humble house, living there with his three servants. When William III visited this cramped residence to meet the Russian guest, the indoor stench nearly suffocated him. Although it was freezing snow outside, he still had to request Peter the Great's permission to open the windows.
A few days later, Peter the Great returned the visit to the British King at Kensington Palace. He disregarded the priceless oil paintings, tapestries, and various decorations in the palace, showing interest only in a wind speed measuring instrument. At Peter the Great's request, the Duke of Marlborough took him to visit the Academy of Sciences, Oxford University, the armory, the Tower of London (used as a prison), the mint, the observatory, the cannon foundry, and various construction sites and docks... Puzzled by Britain's contemporary constitutional monarchy, Peter the Great secretly attended a session of the British House of Lords. Through a small hole in the ceiling, he saw the King seated on the throne and the nobles of the realm sitting on benches. With the help of a translator, he roughly understood the discussions at the meeting. He was very interested and said, "It's beneficial to listen to subjects openly speaking the truth; this is exactly what we should learn from the British!" However, in Peter the Great's mind, it was limited to merely "listening to" the opinions of his subjects; the final decisions still had to be made by him. He still needed to maintain absolute obedience from his subjects and would not allow any opposition.
Soon, Peter the Great grew tired of the metropolis of London and moved to live with Admiral Evelyn near the Royal Dockyard in Deptford, on the banks of the Thames. There, he used an axe to work and drank beer with street workers. He consulted engineers and skilled seamen, quickly jotting down their words in his notebook. He said, "If I hadn't come to Britain, I might have spent my life only as a carpenter." But at night, the Russians, after a day's work, began drinking and reveling as they did at home. They laughed loudly, screamed at the top of their lungs, disturbing their neighbors; when drunk, they randomly slept on the floor, eating whatever food they could grab, whenever they wanted. They stayed in this house for three months. When Admiral Evelyn reclaimed his house, the sight of what looked like a ransacked scene shocked him: doors and windows were dismantled and burned, curtains were torn to shreds and covered in phlegm, precious floors were pried open, portraits painted by master artists were used as targets for shooting practice, and flower beds in the garden were completely trampled, as if a herd of warhorses had been grazing there... The heartbroken admiral angrily called judicial police to make an inventory of the damaged items, with total losses amounting to 350 pounds—though this money was not paid by the Russian Tsar but came from the British treasury.
Moreover, King William III of Britain repeatedly expressed that hosting such a distinguished guest was an immense honor for him! He requested Peter the Great to allow court painter Kneller to paint his portrait as a memento of their meeting and presented the "Royal Transport" speedboat, which Peter the Great had driven in Britain, as a gift to the distinguished guest. In return, Peter the Great gifted an uncut large diamond to William III.
It was not until the end of April that Peter the Great returned to the Netherlands to reunite with the Grand Embassy and set off for Austria. In Austria, he was equally warmly welcomed. However, after the festivities, Peter the Great had to admit that this 18-month visit did not achieve the diplomatic results he had anticipated. Western European countries did not see any benefit in supporting Russia for themselves. The main gains from this visit were that the Grand Embassy recruited many technically specialized personnel abroad, from captains and chief mates to skilled sailors, from doctors and chefs to hydraulic experts... totaling more than 600 people. Additionally, Peter the Great purchased large quantities of supplies: firearms, cannons, canvas, compasses, dividers, anchors, marble, crocodile specimens... It is said that the Grand Embassy spent a huge sum of 3 million rubles abroad!
However, this embassy's visit had another intangible gain: a change in mindset. In a sense, this gain was even more important for Russia. During this long journey, Peter the Great constantly thought of his homeland, comparing everything he saw and heard with Russia's backward economy and culture and its constant threat of invasion, and had already decided to carry out reforms in Russia based on the experiences of advanced Western European countries.
It was precisely this visit that laid the foundation for Peter the Great's subsequent series of reform activities.