Alexander the Great is the most renowned historical figure in Europe. Just look at how many cities named Alexandria are on the world map, and you will immediately grasp the extent of Alexander's might and realize how many lands his vast army once conquered. Starting from the mountainous kingdom of Macedon in northern Greece, he first seized Greece, then invaded Asia, occupied Egypt, advanced deep into Persia, captured the so-called "King of Kings," the Persian Emperor, alive, and finally crossed the Hindu Kush mountains, pushing all the way to the Indus River valley. He established an unprecedentedly vast empire across vast territories, stretching from Greece and Macedon in the west to the Indus River valley in the east, from the First Cataract of the Nile River in the south to the Jaxartes River in the north, with its capital in Babylon. Alexander the Great's achievements have had a deeper impact on the development of Western civilization than any other European in history. Napoleon once evaluated him: "Alexander is the greatest military genius in history." Caesar said: "Alexander, under the age of thirty, had already pacified Greece, marched into the interior of Asia and Africa, subdued nearly a hundred states, captured tens of thousands of cities, and founded a vast empire spanning Europe, Asia, and Africa, truly deserving the title of 'King of the World.'" Then, one cannot help but ask: What exactly made Alexander himself so exceptionally outstanding?
As the saying goes: "Ambition knows no age." From a young age, Alexander harbored a dream: to "reach the ends of the earth." This ambition undoubtedly served as a driving force for his grand conquests. In fact, it is difficult to say whether Alexander undertook his long and arduous campaigns to conquer the world, or whether he conquered the world as a byproduct of being lured by the allure of "the ends of the earth." After all, his empire was but a fleeting moment, while his extraordinary dream and the indomitable spirit with which he pursued it possess a far more enduring charm.
In 356 BC, Alexander was born in the mountainous kingdom of Macedon. His father was King Philip. On the night of his birth, a temple in a Greek city was suddenly destroyed by fire. To the priests, the temple's destruction by heavenly fire was an omen of impending disaster; they ran about, covering their cheeks and shouting, "Disaster is coming upon Asia!" Whether these two events were connected is unknown. At that moment, Alexander was merely a helpless infant, appearing spirited and noble, with a naturally slightly tilted neck and hair standing up like a lion's mane on his forehead. His father was overjoyed and told everyone he met: "The other day, I dreamed I placed a seal of wax on my wife's belly, and the pattern on the wax was a lion. Ha! This boy's nature must be as fierce as a lion."
Alexander's mother was a fiery and imaginative woman, while his father was a pragmatic and level-headed military commander who held the throne. Alexander inherited his military talent and ability to solve practical problems from his father, and from his mother, he inherited a rich imagination, a mystical aura, and an arrogant temperament. From childhood, Alexander was ambitious, even bordering on arrogance. Someone suggested he showcase his talents at the Olympic Games, as he was agile and a good runner. He replied, "Yes, provided my opponents are kings." On another occasion, someone brought a fine horse to Philip. Alexander accompanied his father to a plain to test the horse. The horse was difficult to handle and wouldn't allow anyone to mount it. Philip ordered it to be led away, but Alexander shouted loudly, "What a fine horse! It cannot be obtained because no one has the skill to master it." His arrogance provoked laughter, but undeterred, he ran towards the horse, turning its head towards the sun—because he had noticed the horse was extremely afraid of its own shadow. Then he swiftly leaped onto its back, and as the horse prepared to gallop, he spurred it forward. Philip and his attendants were first stunned with anxiety, but when they saw Alexander riding across the plain in a proper posture, they burst into loud cheers. Philip was so delighted that tears welled up in his eyes. When Alexander returned on horseback, he kissed his son and said, "My son, go and find a kingdom worthy of you. The small pond of Macedon is too small to hold you!"
Alexander claimed descent from the Greek mythological hero Heracles and the Homeric hero Achilles. He admired Heracles' great deeds of ridding the world of evil and dreamed of one day achieving glory in Asia like Achilles.
Alexander loved learning from a young age. He possessed an excellent quality: intellectual curiosity. His teacher was Aristotle, the most renowned Greek philosopher of the time. Inspired by his mentor, he became deeply interested in medicine, natural phenomena, physics, geography, and zoology. He loved Aristotle more than his own father, feeling that the latter had merely given him life, while the former satisfied his many curiosities and taught him how to be a noble person. Once, while reading the *Iliad*, Aristotle approached and asked him, "Alexander, what is your greatest wish?" Alexander replied without hesitation, "I hope to achieve the feats of my ancestors when I grow up. I want to lead a great army and reach the ends of the earth."
Alexander was curious about the world map from a young age. Once, he asked his courtiers, "What lies beyond Macedon?" They told him, "Mountains." He asked again, "And beyond the mountains?" They replied, "The ocean." Alexander asked, "Then what lies beyond the ocean?" The courtiers could not answer, finding the child's question too strange. On another occasion, young Alexander was in charge of receiving Persian envoys. Persia was the vast Asian empire Alexander was determined to conquer. So, he received the envoy cordially and inquired in detail about the length and boundaries of the Persian kingdom. Seeing that the child was interested not in Babylon's Hanging Gardens but in such questions, the Persian envoy exclaimed in admiration, "This child is truly a great ruler, while our king possesses only wealth."
In 336 BC, King Philip was assassinated at his daughter's wedding banquet, and the 20-year-old Alexander inherited the throne. In the shortest possible time, Alexander won the loyalty of the army and was acclaimed King of Macedon. He then immediately marched on Corinth, convened an alliance assembly, and used military force to subdue the entire Greek world, becoming its hegemon. Then, Alexander began to set about realizing his dream of reaching the ends of the earth. The main goal of this dream lay in the East, but he did not rush; he also wanted to see what lay to the north and west behind him. He spent two years clearing the areas behind Macedon, crossing desolate forests, scaling towering mountains, and reaching the Danube River and regions of modern-day Romania and Yugoslavia. However, compared to the mysterious East, these regions were too uncivilized, showing no traces of civilization. It seemed the endless mountains were the end of the world. Thus, Alexander turned his direction, preparing to march into Asia.
Alexander quickly assembled a Macedonian and Greek expeditionary force of 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry, with 150 warships.
In the spring of 334 BC, Alexander declared war on the Persian Empire, using the pretext that the Persians had desecrated Greek holy sites and participated in the assassination of King Philip. Before departure, Alexander distributed all his land revenues, slaves, and livestock to his soldiers, displaying the resolute demeanor of a warrior setting off with no intention of returning. When asked, "What have you left for yourself?" he answered magnanimously, "Hope." The dream of "reaching the ends of the earth" had always churned in his mind, and now it was about to take flight towards Asia.
The expeditionary force crossed the Dardanelles Strait, then passed through the famous Asian city of Troy. Alexander rode on horseback, majestic and imposing, just as Agamemnon had led the Greek coalition forces there in ancient times. He laid a wreath at the tomb of his ancestor Achilles, who had died on the battlefield, and poured libations to honor him, boosting the morale of his entire army. The troops continued their advance. On the banks of the Granicus River, he encountered a prepared Persian army for the first time. The two armies faced each other silently for a while, neither daring to make a move. But Alexander quickly spotted the Persians' weakness. They had positioned their cavalry on the riverbank, with infantry closely following behind—a tactical error that left the cavalry with no room to maneuver and unable to launch a charge. Alexander personally led his cavalry, crossed the swift river, and charged into the enemy ranks. The Persian soldiers met the attackers with high morale, cunningly targeting the conspicuously armored Alexander; a javelin pierced Alexander's chest armor; then two officers charged at him simultaneously. Alexander threw his spear, hitting one soldier, drew his sword, and fought both enemies. At that moment, another Persian officer rushed forward, swinging an axe at Alexander, but Alexander's helmet deflected the blow. Then the royal guard arrived, and together with Alexander, they killed the enemies. In this battle, Alexander achieved victory against superior numbers, giving the Persians a taste of his might.
Alexander led his troops forward, entering the heart of Asia.
At this time, the Persian Emperor Darius was waiting in full strength on the plain of Issus. Alexander pursued him, and the two armies met on the west bank of the Pinarus River. This time, the Persians had superior numbers and a geographical advantage. Some Persian generals advised the emperor to launch a preemptive attack. However, this Persian emperor was a weak-willed and indecisive commander. Fearing the Macedonian army's combat effectiveness, he decided to avoid their strength, adopt a defensive posture, and wait for an opportunity to counterattack. He built a barricade along the Pinarus River to strengthen his defenses and hid a large number of archers on his left flank. He hoped Alexander would attack from the right flank, allowing him to lure the enemy deep and annihilate them in one stroke. But things did not go as planned. After the Macedonians crossed the river, their right wing advanced slowly, not rushing to attack; while the left wing formed a phalanx and launched a lightning-fast assault on the Persians. The Persians were overwhelmed. Darius, who had been standing proudly on his chariot, was the first to falter, abandoning his chariot and fleeing on horseback, even discarding his bow, shield, and royal robe in his haste. With the commander fleeing, the center collapsed, and the entire Persian army disintegrated, with everyone scrambling to escape. Darius's mother, wife, and two daughters all became captives of Alexander.
Since Alexander crossed the Dardanelles, he had achieved brilliant victories, and Asia Minor was now completely under his control. So what next? Pursue the fleeing Darius? No. Alexander thought, there was no need to be in such a hurry; he might as well go and see the other side of the Mediterranean, to see what the "ends of the earth" looked like there. So Alexander marched south along Phoenicia. As he advanced along the coast, city after city surrendered, as if everyone truly recognized him as the king of Asia. Only the city of Tyre resisted. Tyre was located on an island in the Mediterranean, five miles from the mainland. The Tyrians had a tradition of resisting invasion. To prevent the Macedonian army, they first used deception, sending envoys to offer the city's surrender to Alexander. Alexander was genuinely deceived; since the other side had submitted, there was no need to advance. So Alexander happily told the envoys, "I would be delighted to visit the island and pay homage to my ancestor Heracles." This threw the Tyrians into panic. They replied that the temple of Heracles on the island was no better than the one on land. This polite refusal angered Alexander, who saw through the Tyrians' insincerity, and thus led his troops to besiege the city. Alexander was very clever; he built a causeway about 60 meters wide from the mainland to the island, preparing to scale the city walls from the dam. But the Tyrians were not to be outdone. They loaded a large ship with dry wood, resin, and sulfur, and hung large cauldrons filled with flammable materials between two masts. The ship's load caused the stern to sink and the bow to rise high above the water. When the wind picked up, they set the ship on fire and steered it towards the causeway. The burning masts collapsed, spilling the flammable materials and collapsing the causeway. However, Alexander persevered. He quickly ordered his troops to build another causeway, wider than the first, and erected towers on it, using archers to shoot at the harassing Tyrians. The siege of Tyre lasted seven months. Finally, Alexander approached the city walls and erected a floating bridge. But when the Macedonians attacked, the Tyrians threw nets from the walls, dragging those caught into the water. When Alexander's soldiers used battering rams to attack the walls, the Tyrians tied sharp sickles to long poles to cut the ropes of the rams. The Tyrians also poured scalding sand down the walls, causing the Macedonians to scream in pain. Later, a section of the wall collapsed, and Alexander broke into the city, encountering the main Tyrian forces. The Tyrians bravely resisted from the temple as their stronghold but were completely annihilated by Alexander. To vent his hatred, Alexander carried out a massacre in the city, killing about 8,000 people, and enslaving the remaining 30,000.
Then Alexander proceeded smoothly, almost effortlessly reaching Egypt, a land he had longed for. Since childhood, he had heard from his teachers about Egyptian practices of embalming the dead with drugs, their skill in catching crocodiles, and their construction of the mysterious pyramids. Now that he was on this land, he felt infinite comfort. He was also happy because, unlike previous cities which were only obtained after fierce battles, this time Alexander enjoyed the dignity of a royal army, being respectfully welcomed into Egypt and proclaimed the legitimate heir to the Egyptian Pharaoh. In Egypt, Alexander fulfilled his grand ambitions by founding a city named Alexandria. Now, he could look back towards Greece from the other end of the Mediterranean. He left his army behind to break ground on the construction of this port city, while he himself, with a small contingent, journeyed into the Libyan desert. Alexander was once again pursuing his dream of reaching the ends of the earth. He rejoiced at the oases he encountered in the desert, ecstatic like a child at the sight of African giraffes and rhinoceroses he had never seen before. After experiencing the hardships of desolation, desert storms, and illness, Alexander turned back. He reorganized his forces in Egypt, preparing to return to Asia. He had not forgotten Darius, and still wanted to see what the eastern end of the world looked like. His return route was northward along the coast, crossing a fertile plain, reaching the Euphrates River, traversing Mesopotamia, and arriving at the Tigris River.
After his defeat at Issus, Darius had been busy gathering his army. While Alexander was besieging Tyre, Darius wrote a letter to him. The letter said, "You and I are both great kings of the world; we should turn swords into plowshares." He offered to pay a large ransom for his family, marry one of his daughters to Alexander, and cede all the land west of the Euphrates River.
Alexander haughtily replied, "Everything you offer I already possess. If you wish to form an alliance, the Persians must submit as vassals." Darius was furious; after all, he was also a monarch of ten thousand chariots. So he chose an open field to prepare to meet the invading enemy again.
Darius learned from his previous defeats. He understood that the key to battle was breaking through Alexander's Macedonian phalanx. He developed a war chariot equipped with large curved blades, intending to charge across open ground and break into the enemy ranks.
In the spring of 331 BC, both sides committed large forces to a place called Gaugamela, and a decisive battle began.
Darius had always assumed Alexander would launch a surprise attack, so he ordered his soldiers to don their armor the night before the battle. He arranged his troops in a wedge formation, placing the chariots and 15 elephants in the center, with cavalry, archers, and infantry dispersed on the wings, preparing to launch a counter-charge when Alexander attacked, aiming to break the enemy phalanx in one stroke and then encircle and annihilate them with the wings. However, the actual battle exceeded Darius's expectations. Alexander acted contrary to his usual style. He did not prepare for a night attack. He joked, "I don't want to steal victory." Then he entered his tent and slept, waking up only the next morning. Alexander's actions were not reckless underestimation. He knew Darius would not dare to attack first, so by resting, he wasted the Persian army's and elephants' energy throughout the night. At dawn, Alexander donned his armor and began the battle. By then, his attack formation had already changed. On one hand, to counter the enemy chariots, Alexander placed slingers, archers, and javelin throwers in front of the phalanx. On the other hand, when Darius's chariots and elephants charged fiercely, the phalanx immediately scattered and retreated to the wings, opening a path for the chariots, then light infantry rushed out from the phalanx, using slings and stone-throwing devices to "bombard" the chariots, shattering their attack. Then, Alexander mounted his horse, led the cavalry, and fiercely attacked the Persian left wing. Coincidentally, at that very moment, an eagle circled above Alexander's head. The Macedonian soldiers, seeing this, were filled with courage, unstoppable, and completely routed the Persian army. Darius repeated the tragedy of Issus, fleeing in disarray once again.
The beautiful and fertile Asia provided Alexander with many fresh experiences. He acquired vast wealth, ascended Darius's throne in the capital of the crumbling empire, and wore splendid Persian garments, displaying the arrogance and self-satisfaction of a conqueror. He was awed by the local wonders, astonished to see oil gushing from the ground. One night, as darkness deepened, the Babylonians, seeking to please the new monarch, poured oil onto the streets and lit it with torches, turning the entire street into a sea of fire, a magnificent spectacle.
Alexander could not forget his dream of reaching the ends of the earth. When he heard Darius had fled to Media, he led a force eastward in pursuit. Along the way, Alexander told his subordinate generals his plan: once he reached the farthest east, he intended to march south and conquer the Indian subcontinent. After that, he would turn north again, march towards the Black Sea, and see what the northern end of the world above Asia looked like. His subordinates found his lofty ambition difficult to understand. They thought he must be mad, forgetting his roots, with their wives and children still far away in their homeland. How long would this go on? When would they finally return home and reunite with their families? Alexander's vision indeed extended far beyond the borders of Macedon; he was determined to build a vast new world where all nations would be integrated. He established the capital of his empire in Babylon, then continued eastward until he captured and killed Darius, completely burying his dynasty.
In that era, Alexander's geographical knowledge was still quite limited. When he captured Media and then conquered areas to the northeast, including parts of modern-day Iran, Afghanistan's interior, and eastern regions, he stopped, believing he had thus completed his mission of reaching the eastern end of the world.
His next target was India. About India, Alexander and his subordinates knew almost nothing. To them, India was a magical and fertile land at the edge of the earth, inhabited by innocent, peaceful people, extraordinary ascetics, and strange flora and fauna. In Alexander's mind, India meant the Indus River valley. The Indus River flowed south into the sea, and that was the southernmost end of the world.
In the early summer of 327 BC, Alexander led only 35,000 men, crossed the Hindu Kush mountains, and marched towards India. This time, Alexander learned from his experience in eastern Iran; to avoid the suffering of guerrilla warfare, he engaged in wanton slaughter along the way. As news of his brutal massacres spread, local tribes, upon hearing of his approaching army, immediately burned their cities and fled. Alexander advanced in grand style until he reached the city of Aornos, where he encountered real resistance.
Aornos meant "a place where even birds cannot reach." The terrain was steep, and a canyon blocked the way, with Indian heavy troops lying in ambush on the opposite side. When Alexander prepared to cross the canyon, he was attacked by Indian arrows, crossbows, and stones. Alexander ordered his slingers to return fire, but due to the distance, they could not hit their targets. At a loss, Alexander had no choice but to fill the deep canyon with earth and stones. His soldiers worked for four days, piling up a small hill in the canyon with earth and stones. The Indians had originally planned to use the canyon's natural defenses to defeat the enemy, but now that Alexander's soldiers were climbing up, the Indians immediately collapsed. Most were killed while fleeing, while others fell to their deaths from the cliffs.
Alexander entered the prosperous Indian cities. Facing India's even more ancient civilization, he and the Macedonians and Greeks felt somewhat uneasy. They had conquered this land, but the people here displayed the dignity and pride of their own culture. Prosperous markets, majestic palaces, Brahmin universities teaching scriptures and texts, and during the scorching daytime, Indians could remain motionless, naked, standing, sitting, or lying all day, sometimes even sitting on stones or nails. How mysterious and different from the West! Clearly, Alexander had entered a world that did not wish to be disturbed. When Alexander's army encountered some Indian ascetics, they would suddenly stomp their feet and say, "Alexander! Each person has a piece of land under their feet; we also stand on a piece. But you have traversed most of the earth, bringing trouble upon yourself and others. You will soon die, and the land you occupy after death will be no more than enough to bury you."
Alexander's main enemy in India was Porus. Porus's kingdom was established east of the Hydaspes River. In early June, Alexander arrived at the west bank of the Hydaspes River. He realized he must cross the river before the tropical rainy season and the melting snow from the Himalayas, otherwise the river would become swift and turbulent, making crossing impossible. By then, signs of the rainy season were already apparent, and the river was beginning to rise. Alexander looked out and saw that the Indians were already fully prepared. Porus was tall and strong, riding an elephant as large as himself. The Indians had over 200 elephants, hundreds of scythed chariots, and tens of thousands of infantry. Facing this superior force and the intimidating elephant cavalry, the Macedonian soldiers were naturally worried about how to cross the river.
Alexander suddenly devised a stratagem of deception. He ordered his warships to sail back and forth on the river, while simultaneously dividing his troops into several groups, sending forces in both north and south directions. Several batches of troops chose different landing sites, creating the appearance of preparing to cross the river. The entire west bank was bustling with activity, filled with shouts and the sounds of horses. Porus ran up and down the riverbank every day, doing his best to track Alexander's movements. But soon, Porus grew tired of the constant activity and did not want to waste his energy being led around by Alexander. He posted sentries everywhere and focused on monitoring Alexander's main camp. Alexander immediately took action. He led 15,000 infantry and cavalry, secretly advancing at night, and crossed the river at a beach dozens of miles away. Alexander encountered great difficulties crossing the river; his troops were scattered and became stuck in the mud on the shore. Fortunately, Porus's son arrived late with his troops, giving Alexander a chance to catch his breath. When 2,000 Indian soldiers rushed up to block them, Alexander killed Porus's son, and his army quickly routed the enemy with little effort. Upon hearing that Alexander had crossed the river, Porus immediately led a large force to confront him. Porus chose to form his battle line on a sandy plain. The sand was unsuitable for cavalry combat, which could neutralize Alexander's advantage. Porus lined up his 200 elephants in a row, with at least 1,000 meters between each elephant, and deployed infantry between every two elephants. Porus positioned himself in the center, with 150 chariots deployed on each wing, and all the cavalry on his right, preparing to launch a fierce attack on Alexander. Alexander had no elephants; he knew his horses would not dare approach Porus's elephants. He adapted quickly, ordering each of his cavalrymen to carry an archer forward, shooting a rain of arrows at the elephants and the infantry behind them. At the same time, he ordered a subordinate general to lead a portion of light cavalry around to the enemy's rear, launching a fierce attack on the left wing, which lacked cavalry protection. Porus was attacked from both sides and began to falter. He ordered the elephant drivers to release wild beasts to attack, but it was too late. Alexander's archers, moving freely with the cavalry, hurled weapons at the elephants. The wounded elephants, in agony, went berserk, trampling indiscriminately through both enemy and friendly lines. At this critical moment, Alexander's main force, which had crossed the river from the camp, arrived quickly. The Indians were surrounded and slaughtered, and Porus himself was captured.
The intense heat and tropical monsoon rains, combined with endless marching and fighting across this vast land, made Alexander's soldiers unable to endure. When they crossed the rivers of Punjab and entered the boundless plains, the soldiers heard that countless elephants and even fiercer Indians were waiting in full strength, and they felt they could not endure this any longer. So they refused to advance further. Alexander, as usual, gathered his soldiers and delivered an impassioned speech, reminding them of his history of leading them from the front to achieve great feats. "Reach the ends of the earth," Alexander said, "let victory bring you joy, and let the ideal of a unified world be fully realized." His speech was met only with silence. A distinguished general bravely spoke up: "Alexander the Great, look how many of those who left Macedon with you are still alive? The survivors are exhausted; they only hope for one thing: to return alive to their homeland and see their families once more." His words triggered sustained cheers, and some soldiers even shed tears. Alexander angrily returned to his tent and did not appear for three days, hoping the army would change its mind. But the entire army remained firm in its resolve. With no choice, Alexander had to announce the withdrawal and return home. Although the soldiers won the victory on the issue of returning home, the route back was still to be chosen by Alexander. Alexander played a trick: he divided his forces into two. One route, led by the general Nearchus, would sail from the mouth of the Indus River into the Persian Gulf; Alexander hoped they would sail upstream and eventually return to Babylon by water, proving the integrity of the empire's territory. He himself would lead the other group of soldiers downstream along a tributary of the Indus River, preparing to return home via a southern detour. Alexander had his own plans: he felt the southern end of the world was near, and the dream he couldn't fulfill in Africa must be realized on the Indian subcontinent. His prediction was indeed correct. In July of 325 BC, Alexander finally reached the Indus River delta. The ocean was now clearly visible in the distance, and Alexander was filled with confidence: the inhabited earth indeed had a southern end, and this land before him was it.
The return journey was long and dreadful. He had to traverse dense primeval forests and hundreds of kilometers of vast deserts where water was hard to find. Under the scorching heat, the troops could only march at night. One night, a sudden downpour occurred while Alexander and his troops were camping beside a small stream. The stream instantly turned into a raging torrent, drowning many accompanying women and children, and sweeping away pack animals and supplies. Along the way, Alexander was also repeatedly attacked by Indians. When capturing a town, Alexander personally climbed and fought, and was nearly killed when an arrow pierced his chest armor. Strange and extraordinary events occurred continuously along the journey. Alexander's army even encountered some true wild men, who still lived in the Stone Age, with half-naked, hairy bodies, and long fingernails that looked like animal claws. Their food consisted of fish caught during low tide or caught with palm-leaf nets. They built their homes using the bones of whales that had stranded and died on the shore. Initially, they tried to use wooden sticks to hunt the Macedonians' livestock, but when they saw the soldiers' arrows flying like locusts, they vanished without a trace. Another event occurred on the return journey. In the spring of 324 BC, when the troops reached Susa, an Indian philosopher named Calanus, who had joined Alexander, suddenly requested self-immolation. Alexander's劝说 was ineffective, so he ordered that his request be fulfilled. On the day of the cremation, Calanus, wearing an Indian-style wreath, sat on a palanquin. The Indian mourners sang hymns. As the procession approached the pyre, Calanus turned back and said to Alexander, "We will meet again in Babylon soon." Then, Calanus climbed onto the pyre and ordered the fire to be lit. Flames shot into the sky, and Calanus showed no fear, creating a scene that was unforgettable.
In the spring of 323 BC, Alexander returned to Babylon. His dream of "reaching the ends of the earth" had been largely fulfilled. Now, he wanted to rest and recuperate, and do some things beyond military exploits. In governing the state, Alexander also displayed his youthful talent. He dredged the Euphrates River, built water conservancy projects, allocated large sums to construct public facilities and support artists and musicians. He wanted to turn Babylon into a major port. Did this action imply that one day he would set out again to expand his lifelong ambition? No one knows. However, Alexander was destined not to have this opportunity. Perhaps he was not accustomed to the sudden calm after a long life of campaigning, or perhaps he was exhausted from overwork, but his old illness of fever and chills became incurable. On the evening of June 10, Alexander died, only 33 years old. At that moment, people suddenly remembered the words of the Indian philosopher and could not help but be awed by the mysterious and indifferent decree of fate.