Alexander the Great is one of Europe's most renowned historical figures. The number of cities named "Alexandria" scattered across the world map attests to Alexander's immense influence and reveals the vast territories conquered by his army. Setting out from the mountainous kingdom of Macedonia in northern Greece, he first occupied Greece, then invaded Asia, conquered Egypt, swept through Persia, captured the so-called "King of Kings," the Persian Emperor, and finally crossed the Hindu Kush mountains, pushing all the way to the Indus River Valley. On this vast expanse of land, he established an unprecedented empire stretching from Greece and Macedonia in the west to the Indus River in the east, from the First Cataract of the Nile in the south to the Jaxartes River in the north, with its capital at Babylon. Alexander's achievements have had a more profound impact on the development of Western civilization than those of any other European in history. Napoleon once commented on him: "Alexander was the greatest military genius in history." Caesar said: "Alexander, still under thirty, had already pacified Greece, advanced into the interior of Asia and Africa, subjugated nearly a hundred kingdoms, captured tens of thousands of cities, and created a vast empire spanning Europe, Asia, and Africa—truly a king of the world." So, one cannot help but wonder: what exceptional qualities did Alexander himself possess?
As the proverb goes: "Age is no barrier to ambition." From childhood, Alexander harbored a single wish: "to reach the ends of the earth," a desire that undoubtedly served as a driving force behind his conquests. In fact, it is difficult to say whether Alexander undertook his long and arduous campaigns merely to conquer the world, or whether the allure of "the ends of the earth" led him to conquer the world almost incidentally. After all, his empire was but a fleeting phenomenon, while his extraordinary ambition and the relentless spirit with which he pursued it possess a far more enduring appeal.
In 356 BC, Alexander was born in the mountainous kingdom of Macedonia. His father was King Philip. On the night of his birth, a temple in a Greek city was suddenly destroyed by fire. To the priests, the destruction of a temple by divine fire was an omen of impending disaster. They ran about, covering their cheeks with their hands and shouting: "Disaster is upon Asia!" Whether these two events were truly connected remains unknown. At that moment, Alexander was merely a crying infant. He appeared exceptionally spirited, with a naturally slightly tilted neck and hair standing up like a lion's mane on his forehead. His father was overjoyed and told everyone: "Just the other day, I dreamed I placed a seal on my wife's belly. The design on the seal was a lion. Ha! This boy's nature must be as fierce as a lion."
Alexander's mother was a fiery, imaginative woman, while his father was a pragmatic, level-headed military commander occupying the throne. Alexander inherited his military talent and practical problem-solving skills from his father, and from his mother, he inherited a rich imagination, a mystical streak, and a domineering temperament. From childhood, Alexander was ambitious, even bordering on arrogance. Someone suggested he display his abilities at the Olympic Games, as he was agile and swift of foot. He replied: "Yes, if my opponents were all kings." On another occasion, someone brought a fine horse to Philip. Alexander accompanied his father to the plain to test the horse. The horse was difficult to control and would not allow anyone to mount it. Philip ordered it to be led away, but Alexander shouted loudly: "What a magnificent horse! We cannot have it because no one has the skill to master it." His audacity provoked a burst of laughter, but Alexander ran toward the horse, turned its head toward the sun—having noticed that the horse was afraid of its own shadow—and then swiftly leapt onto its back. As the horse prepared to bolt, Alexander spurred it forward. Philip and his attendants were initially speechless with anxiety, but when they saw Alexander riding across the plain with perfect form, they burst into cheers. Overcome with joy, Philip wept. When Alexander returned on horseback, Philip kissed his son and said: "My son, go and find a kingdom worthy of you. Macedonia is too small a pond to hold you!"
Alexander claimed descent from the Greek mythological hero Heracles and Achilles, the hero of the Homeric epics. He admired Heracles' great deeds in ridding the world of evil, and he aspired to achieve glory in Asia like Achilles.
Alexander loved learning from a young age and possessed the admirable quality of intellectual curiosity. His teacher was Aristotle, the most renowned Greek philosopher of the time. Inspired by his mentor, he became deeply interested in medicine, natural phenomena, physics, geography, and zoology. He loved Aristotle more than his own father, feeling that the latter had merely given him life, while the former satisfied his many curiosities and taught him how to be a noble man. Once, while reading the Homeric epics, Aristotle approached and asked him: "Alexander, what is your greatest wish?" Without hesitation, Alexander replied: "I wish to achieve the feats of my ancestors. I want to lead a great army and reach the ends of the earth."
Alexander was naturally curious about the world map. Once, he asked his courtiers: "What lies beyond Macedonia?" They told him: "Mountains." He asked again: "And beyond the mountains?" They replied: "The sea." Alexander then asked: "And beyond the sea?" The courtiers could not answer and thought the child's question strange. On another occasion, the young Alexander was responsible for receiving Persian envoys. Persia was the vast Asian empire that Alexander was determined to conquer. He received the envoy courteously and inquired in detail about the length and boundaries of the Persian kingdom. Seeing that the boy was not interested in Babylon's Hanging Gardens but asked such questions, the Persian envoy exclaimed: "This child is truly a great monarch, while our king possesses only wealth."
In 336 BC, King Philip was assassinated at his daughter's wedding banquet. Alexander, only twenty years old, inherited the throne. In the shortest possible time, Alexander won the loyalty of the army and was proclaimed King of Macedonia. He then immediately marched on Corinth and convened an alliance assembly, using military force to subdue all of Greece and become its leader. Then, Alexander began to realize his ambition to reach the ends of the earth. His primary goal lay in the East, but he did not rush. He also wanted to see what lay to the north and west behind him. In two years, he cleared the regions behind Macedonia, traversing uninhabited forests and crossing towering mountains, reaching the Danube River and areas of present-day Romania and Yugoslavia. But compared to the mysterious East, these regions seemed uncivilized, with no traces of civilization. It seemed the endless mountains marked the end of the world, so Alexander turned his direction, preparing to advance into Asia.
Alexander quickly assembled an expeditionary force of 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry, along with 150 warships, comprising Macedonian and Greek troops.
In the spring of 334 BC, Alexander declared war on the Persian Empire, using the pretext that the Persians had desecrated Greek holy sites and participated in the assassination of King Philip. Before departure, Alexander distributed all his estate income, slaves, and livestock to his soldiers, adopting the demeanor of a warrior setting off with no intention of returning. When asked, "What have you kept for yourself?" he answered proudly: "Hope." The desire to "reach the ends of the earth" had always churned in his mind, and now it was about to take flight toward Asia.
The expeditionary force crossed the Hellespont, then proceeded through the famous Asian city of Troy. Alexander, riding his horse, looked majestic, as if Agamemnon leading the Greek alliance to this place in ancient times. He laid a wreath at the tomb of his ancestral hero Achilles, who had died in battle, and poured a libation to inspire his entire army. The troops continued their advance and encountered a prepared Persian army for the first time on the banks of the Granicus River. The two armies faced each other silently for a while, neither daring to make a rash move. But Alexander quickly spotted a flaw in the Persian formation. They had positioned their cavalry at the riverbank, with infantry closely following behind—a tactical error that left the cavalry with no room to maneuver and unable to launch a charge. Alexander personally led the cavalry, crossed the rushing river, and charged the enemy lines. The Persian soldiers met the invaders with high morale, cunningly targeting the conspicuously armored Alexander. A javelin pierced Alexander's chest armor; then two officers charged him simultaneously. Alexander threw his spear, hitting one soldier, drew his sword, and engaged the two enemies. At that moment, another Persian officer rushed forward, swinging an axe at Alexander, but Alexander's helmet deflected the blow. Just then, the royal guard arrived, joining Alexander in killing the enemies. In this battle, Alexander achieved a victory with superior numbers, giving the Persians a small taste of his power.
Alexander led his troops further into the heart of Asia.
At this time, the Persian Emperor Darius was waiting in full force on the plains of Issus. Alexander pursued him, and the two armies met on the west bank of the Pinarus River. This time, the Persians had numerical superiority and a favorable geographical position. Some Persian generals advised the emperor to launch a preemptive attack. But this Persian emperor was a weak-willed and indecisive commander. Fearing the Macedonian army's combat power, he decided to avoid their strength and adopt a defensive posture, waiting for an opportunity to counterattack. He built a barricade along the Pinarus River to strengthen his defenses and hid a large number of archers in his left wing. He hoped Alexander would attack from the right, lure him deep into the trap, and then annihilate the enemy in one fell swoop. However, things did not go as planned. After crossing the river, the right wing of the Macedonian army advanced slowly, not rushing to attack; meanwhile, the left wing formed a phalanx and launched a swift, thunderous charge against the Persians. The Persians were overwhelmed. Darius, who had been standing arrogantly on his chariot, was the first to falter, abandoning his chariot and fleeing on horseback, even discarding his bow, shield, and royal robe. With the commander fleeing the battlefield, the center collapsed, and the entire Persian army scattered, each man scrambling for his life. Darius's mother, wife, and two daughters all became Alexander's captives.
Since Alexander crossed the Hellespont, he had achieved brilliant victories, and Asia Minor was now entirely under his control. What next? Pursue the fleeing Darius? No. Alexander thought, no need to rush; better to go see the other side of the Mediterranean, to see what the "end of the world" looks like over there. So Alexander marched south along the Phoenician coast. As he advanced along the coast, city after city surrendered, as if they truly were proclaiming him king of Asia. Only the city of Tyre resisted. Tyre was located on an island in the Mediterranean, five miles from the mainland. The Tyrians had a tradition of resisting invasions. To stop the Macedonian army, they first used a ruse, sending envoys to offer the city's surrender to Alexander. Alexander was truly deceived; since the other side had submitted, there was no need to advance. So Alexander happily told the envoys: "I would be delighted to visit the island and pay homage to my ancestor Heracles." This threw the Tyrians into panic. They replied that the Heracles temple on the island was no better than the one on the mainland. This polite refusal enraged Alexander, who saw through the Tyrians' duplicity, and he led his troops to besiege the city. Alexander was very clever; he built a causeway about 60 meters wide from the mainland to the island, preparing to assault the city from the causeway. But the Tyrians were not to be outdone. They loaded a large ship with dry wood, resin, and sulfur, hung large cauldrons filled with flammable materials between two masts, and made the ship's stern sink low by its load while the bow rose high above the water. When the wind picked up, they set the ship on fire and rowed it toward the causeway. The burning masts collapsed, spilling the flammable materials and collapsing the causeway. But Alexander was persistent; he quickly ordered the construction of another causeway, wider than the first, and built towers on it, using archers to shoot at the harassing Tyrians. The siege of Tyre lasted seven months, but Alexander finally approached the city walls and erected a floating bridge. Yet, when the Macedonians attacked, the Tyrians threw nets from the walls, trapping and throwing people into the water. When Alexander's soldiers used battering rams to attack the walls, the Tyrians tied sharp sickles to long poles to cut the ropes of the rams. The Tyrians also poured scalding sand down the walls, causing the Macedonians to scream in pain. Later, a section of the wall collapsed, and Alexander broke into the city, encountering the main Tyrian forces. The Tyrians bravely resisted, using the temple as a stronghold, but were completely annihilated by Alexander. To vent his hatred, Alexander carried out a massacre in the city, killing about 8,000 people, and enslaving the remaining 30,000.
Then Alexander proceeded smoothly, almost without difficulty, reaching the Egypt he had longed for. From a young age, he had heard from his teacher about Egyptian practices of mummification, their skill in catching crocodiles, and their construction of the miraculous pyramids. Now he stood on this land, feeling infinite relief. He was also pleased because, unlike previous cities that had been captured only after fierce battles, this time Alexander enjoyed the honor of a royal army, was respectfully welcomed into Egypt, and was proclaimed the legitimate successor to the Egyptian pharaoh. In Egypt, Alexander fulfilled his grand ambitions by founding the city of Alexandria. Now, he could look back at Greece from the other end of the Mediterranean. Alexander left his army to begin the groundbreaking work on this port city, while he himself took a small contingent and traveled far into the Libyan desert. Alexander was again pursuing his ambition to reach the ends of the earth. He rejoiced at the oases he encountered in the desert, ecstatic like a child at the African giraffes and rhinoceroses he had never seen before. After enduring the hardships of uninhabited deserts, sandstorms, and illness, Alexander turned back. He reorganized his troops in Egypt, preparing to return to Asia. He had not forgotten Darius, nor had he forgotten his desire to see what lay at the eastern end of the world. His return route followed the coast northward, passing through fertile plains, reaching the Euphrates River, crossing Mesopotamia, and arriving at the Tigris River.
After his defeat at Issus, Darius had been busy gathering his army. While Alexander was besieging Tyre, Darius wrote a letter to Alexander. The letter said: "You and I are both great monarchs of the world; we should turn swords into plowshares." He offered to pay a large ransom for the return of his family, marry one of his daughters to Alexander, and cede all the land west of the Euphrates River.
Alexander haughtily replied: "Everything you offer, I already possess. If you wish to form an alliance, the Persians must submit to me." Darius was furious; after all, he was still a ruler of a thousand chariots. So he chose an open battlefield to prepare to meet the invading enemy once more.
Darius learned from his previous defeats. He understood that the key to battle was breaking through Alexander's Macedonian phalanx. He developed a war chariot equipped with large scythes, preparing to race across open ground and charge into the enemy lines.
In the spring of 331 BC, both sides committed large forces at a place called Gaugamela, and a decisive battle began.
Darius assumed Alexander would launch a surprise attack, so he ordered his soldiers to don their armor the night before the battle. He arranged his troops in a wedge formation, placing the scythed chariots and 15 elephants in the center, with cavalry, archers, and infantry deployed on the flanks, intending to launch a counterattack when Alexander charged, break through the enemy phalanx, and then encircle and annihilate the enemy. But the actual battle exceeded Darius's expectations. Alexander acted contrary to his usual style. He did not prepare for a night attack. He joked: "I don't want to steal victory." Then he entered his tent and slept, not waking until the next morning. Alexander did this not out of blind arrogance. He knew Darius would not dare to attack first, so by resting, he wasted the Persians' and elephants' energy throughout the night. At dawn, Alexander donned his armor and began the battle. By then, his attack formation had already changed. To counter the enemy's chariots, Alexander placed slingers, archers, and javelin throwers in front of the phalanx. When Darius's chariots and elephants charged fiercely, the phalanx immediately scattered to the flanks, opening a path for the chariots, then light infantry rushed out from the phalanx, using slings and stone-throwing machines to "bombard" the chariots, shattering their attack. Then, Alexander mounted his horse, led the cavalry, and fiercely attacked the Persian left flank. Coincidentally, at that moment, an eagle circled above Alexander's head. Seeing this, the Macedonian soldiers were filled with courage, unstoppable, and crushed the Persian army in one fell swoop. Darius repeated the tragedy of Issus, fleeing in panic once again.
The beautiful and fertile Asia provided Alexander with many fresh experiences. He seized vast wealth, ascended Darius's throne in the capital of the disintegrating empire, and wore splendid Persian clothing, displaying the arrogance and self-satisfaction of a conqueror. He was awed by the local wonders, astonished by the oil gushing from the ground. One night, as darkness deepened, the Babylonians, seeking to please the new monarch, poured oil on the streets and lit it with torches, turning the entire street into a spectacular sea of fire.
Alexander never forgot his ambition to reach the ends of the earth. When he heard that Darius had fled to Media, he led a force eastward in pursuit. On the way, Alexander told his subordinate generals his plan: once he reached the farthest east, he intended to move south to conquer the Indian subcontinent. After that, he would turn north, march to the Black Sea, and see what the northern end of Asia looked like. His subordinates found it difficult to understand his lofty ambition. They thought he must be crazy, forgetting his roots. Their wives and children were still far away in their homeland; how long would this go on? When would they ever return home and reunite with their families? Alexander indeed looked far beyond the borders of Macedonia; he dreamed of building a vast new world where all nations would blend together. He established his imperial capital in Babylon and continued eastward until he captured and killed Darius, burying his dynasty.
In that era, Alexander's geographical knowledge was still quite limited. When he captured Media and occupied regions to the northeast, including parts of present-day Iran, the heart of Afghanistan, and some eastern areas, he stopped, believing he had fulfilled his mission of reaching the eastern end of the world.
His next target was India. Alexander and his subordinates knew almost nothing about India. To them, India was a magical and fertile land at the edge of the earth, inhabited by innocent, peaceful people, extraordinary ascetics, and strange animals and plants. In Alexander's mind, India meant the Indus River Valley. The Indus River flowed south into the sea, and that was the southernmost end of the world.
In early summer of 327 BC, Alexander led only 35,000 men, crossed the Hindu Kush mountains, and marched toward India. This time, Alexander learned from his experience in eastern Iran; to avoid the suffering of guerrilla warfare, he resorted to indiscriminate slaughter along the way. As news of his brutal massacres spread, local tribes, upon hearing of his approaching army, immediately burned their cities and fled. Alexander advanced in grand style until he reached the city of Aornos, where he finally encountered real resistance.
Aornos means "a place even birds cannot reach." The terrain was steep, and a canyon blocked the way, with Indian troops lying in ambush on the opposite side. When Alexander prepared to cross the canyon, he was attacked by Indian arrows, crossbows, and stones. Alexander ordered his slingers to return fire, but the distance was too great to hit the targets. Helpless, Alexander had to fill the deep canyon with earth and stones. His soldiers worked for four days, piling up an earthen hill in the canyon. The Indians had hoped to use the canyon as a natural barrier, but now Alexander's soldiers were climbing up, and the Indians immediately collapsed. Most were killed in flight, while others fell to their deaths from the cliffs.
Alexander entered India's prosperous cities. Faced with India's even more ancient civilization, Alexander and his Macedonians and Greeks felt somewhat uneasy. They had conquered this land, but the people here displayed the pride and dignity of their own culture. Prosperous markets, majestic palaces, Brahmin universities teaching scriptures and texts, and during the scorching days, Indians could remain motionless, naked, standing, sitting, or lying all day, sometimes even sitting on stones or nails. How mysterious and different from the West all this was! Clearly, Alexander had entered a world that did not wish to be disturbed. When Alexander encountered Indian ascetics during his march, they would suddenly stomp their feet and say: "Alexander! Each person has a piece of land under their feet; we too stand on a piece, yet you traverse most of the earth, troubling yourself and harming others. You will soon die, and the land you occupy after death will be just enough to bury you."
Alexander's main enemy in India was Porus. Porus's kingdom was established east of the Hydaspes River. In early June, Alexander reached the west bank of the Hydaspes River. He realized he must cross the river before the onset of the tropical monsoon season and the melting of Himalayan snow; otherwise, the river would become swift and turbulent, making crossing impossible. Signs of the rainy season were already evident, and the river was beginning to rise. Alexander looked across and saw that the Indians were already fully prepared. Porus, tall and imposing, rode an elephant matching his stature. The Indians had over 200 elephants, hundreds of scythed chariots, and tens of thousands of infantry. Faced with this overwhelming force and the daunting sight of elephant cavalry, the Macedonian soldiers were anxious: how could they cross the river?
Alexander suddenly devised a stratagem of deception. He ordered his warships to sail back and forth on the river, while dividing his troops into several groups and sending forces north and south, with several units choosing landing sites and making preparations to cross, keeping the entire west bank busy with activity and the sounds of men and horses. Porus ran up and down the riverbank every day, doing his best to track Alexander's movements. But soon, Porus became tired of the game, unwilling to waste his energy being led around by Alexander. He posted sentries everywhere and focused on Alexander's main camp. Alexander immediately took action, leading 15,000 infantry and cavalry, secretly advancing at night to a riverbank dozens of miles away and crossing the river. Alexander encountered great difficulties during the crossing; his troops were scattered and got stuck in the mud on the bank. Fortunately, Porus's son arrived late with his troops, giving Alexander a chance to catch his breath. When 2,000 Indian soldiers rushed forward to block them, Alexander killed Porus's son, and his army quickly routed the enemy. Upon hearing that Alexander had crossed the river, Porus immediately led a large force to meet him in battle. Porus chose to deploy his troops in front of a sandy area, where cavalry operations were difficult, thus neutralizing Alexander's advantage. Porus lined up his 200 elephants in a row, each spaced at least 1,000 meters apart, with infantry deployed between each pair of elephants. Porus positioned himself in the center, with 150 scythed chariots deployed on each flank, and all his cavalry on his right, preparing to launch a fierce attack on Alexander. Alexander had no elephants; he knew his horses would not dare approach Porus's elephants. He adapted quickly, ordering each cavalryman to carry an archer forward, showering the elephants and the infantry behind them with a rain of arrows. At the same time, he ordered a subordinate general to lead a portion of light cavalry around to the enemy's rear, launching a fierce attack on the left flank, which lacked cavalry protection. Under attack from two sides, Porus began to falter. He ordered the elephant drivers to release the beasts to attack, but it was too late. Alexander's archers moved freely with the cavalry, hurling weapons at the elephants. Wounded elephants, driven mad with pain, rampaged indiscriminately, trampling both friend and foe. At this critical moment, the main Macedonian force that had crossed from the main camp arrived swiftly. The Indians were surrounded and slaughtered, and Porus himself was captured.
The intense heat and tropical monsoon rains, combined with endless marching and fighting across this vast land, made Alexander's soldiers suffer greatly. When they crossed the rivers of Punjab and entered the boundless plains, the soldiers heard that countless elephants and even fiercer Indians were waiting in full force, and they felt they could no longer endure this indefinitely. So they refused to advance further. As usual, Alexander gathered his soldiers and delivered an impassioned speech, reminding them of his history of leading them from the front to achieve great feats. "Reach the ends of the earth," Alexander said, "let victory bring you joy, let the idea of a unified world be fully realized." His speech was met only with silence. A highly decorated general bravely spoke up: "Alexander the Great, look at how many of those who left Macedonia with you remain? The survivors are exhausted; they long for only one thing: to return alive to their homeland and see their families once more." His words triggered prolonged cheers, and some soldiers even shed tears. Alexander angrily returned to his tent and did not appear for three days, hoping the army would change its mind, but the entire army remained firm in its resolve. With no choice, Alexander had to announce the withdrawal and return home. Although the soldiers won the argument about returning, the route home was still to be decided by Alexander. Alexander devised a clever plan: he split his army into two routes. One, led by the general Nearchus, would sail from the mouth of the Indus River into the Persian Gulf; Alexander hoped they would sail upstream and eventually return to Babylon by water, proving the integrity of the empire's territory. He himself led the other group of soldiers down a tributary of the Indus River, preparing to return home via a southern detour. Alexander had his own plans: he felt the southern end of the world was near; the ambition he had failed to fulfill in Africa must be realized in the Indian subcontinent. His prediction proved correct. In July of 325 BC, Alexander finally reached the Indus River delta. The ocean was now clearly in sight, and Alexander felt triumphant: the inhabited earth indeed had a southern end, and this land before him was it.
The return journey was long and terrible. He had to traverse dense primeval forests and hundreds of kilometers of waterless desert. Under the unbearable heat, the troops could only march at night. One night, a sudden downpour occurred while Alexander and his troops were camping beside a small stream. The stream instantly turned into a raging torrent, drowning many accompanying women and children, and sweeping away pack animals and supplies. Along the way, Alexander was also repeatedly attacked by Indians. When capturing a town, Alexander personally climbed to fight and was nearly killed when an arrow pierced his chest armor. Strange and wondrous events occurred continuously. Alexander's army even encountered some genuine wild men, living in the Stone Age, half-naked, hairy, with long nails resembling animal claws. These people's food consisted of fish caught at low tide or caught with palm-leaf nets. They built their houses from the bones of whales that had stranded and died on the shore. Initially, they tried to hunt Macedonian livestock with wooden clubs, but when they saw the soldiers firing swarms of arrows, they vanished instantly. Another incident occurred on the return journey. In the spring of 324 BC, when the troops reached Susa, an Indian philosopher named Calanus, who had joined Alexander, suddenly requested self-immolation. Unable to dissuade him, Alexander ordered that his request be granted. On the day of the cremation, Calanus, wearing an Indian-style garland, sat on a litter. Indian mourners sang sacred songs. As the procession approached the pyre, Calanus turned back to Alexander and said: "We shall meet again in Babylon." Then Calanus mounted the pyre and ordered the fire to be lit. Flames shot skyward, and Calanus showed no fear, creating a scene that was unforgettable.
In the spring of 323 BC, Alexander returned to Babylon. His ambition to "reach the ends of the earth" had been largely fulfilled. Now he wanted to rest and engage in pursuits beyond military exploits. In governing the state, Alexander also displayed his youthful talent. He dredged the Euphrates River, developed water conservancy projects, allocated huge sums to build public facilities and support artists and musicians, and wanted to turn Babylon into a major port. Did this action imply that one day he would set out again to expand his lifelong ambition? No one knows. But Alexander was destined not to have this opportunity. Perhaps he was unaccustomed to the sudden peace after a long period of warfare, or perhaps he was exhausted from overwork, his old feverish illness became persistent and incurable. On the evening of June 10, Alexander died, only 33 years old. At that moment, people suddenly remembered the words of the Indian philosopher, and were filled with awe at the mysterious decree of fate.