After the failure of the Qingli Reforms, social contradictions in the Northern Song Dynasty persisted. Bureaucrat-landlords massively consolidated land, with some enjoying tax-exemption privileges and others using their power to conceal assets and evade taxes, thus placing the heavy burden of taxation and corvée labor squarely on the shoulders of peasants. Furthermore, the government had to pay large amounts of silver and silk annually to the Liao and Western Xia kingdoms, a cost also ultimately borne by the peasants. Peasant uprisings occurred frequently across the country. State revenue from land taxes was insecure, while expenditures continued to grow. The Northern Song government faced a severe crisis.
In 1067 AD, Emperor Shenzong of Song, Zhao Xu (xū), ascended the throne. At only twenty years old, he was eager to achieve great things. Even before his accession, he had heard of Wang Anshi's great talent. Thus, upon taking the throne, he immediately thought of Wang Anshi, appointing him as the Prefect of Jiangning (present-day Nanjing). Within a few months, he transferred Wang Anshi to the capital to serve as a Hanlin Academician.
Wang Anshi was a renowned statesman and literary figure of the Northern Song Dynasty. A native of Linchuan, Fuzhou (present-day Linchuan, Jiangxi), he had a passion for reading from a young age. He studied diligently, remembering everything he read for life. His writing was both fast and excellent, and his poetry and lyrics were also impressive. Zeng Gong sent his writings to Ouyang Xiu, who greatly admired them. Wang Anshi was one of the famed "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song."
Wang Anshi passed the imperial examination at the age of twenty-two and subsequently served in local government posts. While serving as magistrate of Yin County (yín, present-day Ningbo, Zhejiang), he organized peasants to construct water conservancy projects, build embankments, and dredge rivers. He also loaned grain from government granaries to peasants during the lean season before the harvest, requiring them to repay with a small amount of interest after the autumn harvest. This protected peasants from the heavy usury of landlords and gentry. These measures brought significant benefits to the peasants.
After serving as a local official for twenty years and accomplishing many things beneficial to peasants, Emperor Renzong transferred Wang Anshi to the capital to manage finance. At this time, Wang Anshi submitted a memorial over ten thousand characters long to Emperor Renzong, proposing comprehensive reforms. However, Emperor Renzong did not take it seriously and set it aside.
Seeing that the court lacked the resolve for reform and disagreeing with the ruling ministers, Wang Anshi resigned and returned home when his mother passed away.
This time, Emperor Shenzong ordered him to serve in Jiangning Prefecture. Hearing that the new emperor was young and ambitious, Wang Anshi left his hometown and took up his post in Jiangning.
Soon after, Emperor Shenzong summoned Wang Anshi to the capital. Upon his arrival, the emperor received him and asked, "In your opinion, where should we begin to govern the country well?"
Wang Anshi replied without hesitation, "Changing customs and establishing laws and regulations is the most urgent task."
Emperor Shenzong nodded repeatedly in agreement and said, "I hope you will help me reform the government well."
In 1069 AD, Emperor Shenzong appointed Wang Anshi as Vice Chancellor, and the following year promoted him to Chancellor. At the time, there were several chancellors and vice chancellors in the court, some of whom were elderly and timid, while others opposed reform. Wang Anshi knew it was clearly impossible to implement reforms together with these people. Immediately upon becoming Vice Chancellor, with the emperor's approval, he quickly established a new agency to lead the reforms—the Bureau for the Examination and Administration of the Three Ministries (Zhizhi Sansi Tiaoli Si)—and appointed a group of new officials. Although nominally co-managed by Wang Anshi and another official, the bureau was in fact entirely under Wang Anshi's control.
Emperor Shenzong was eager to implement reforms. The very next month after the bureau's establishment, he urged progress on drafting the new laws. Wang Anshi quickly dispatched people to investigate conditions regarding agriculture, water conservancy, and taxation across the country, hastening the formulation of new laws and promulgating them nationwide.
The main contents of the new laws were:
1. **The Green Sprouts Law:** This was a method Wang Anshi had used earlier in Yin County. In the spring, during the lean season, the government would lend money or grain to peasants at low interest, to be repaid after the autumn harvest.
2. **The Agricultural Land and Water Conservancy Law:** The government encouraged the reclamation of wasteland and the construction of irrigation works.
3. **The Exemption from Corvée Labor Law:** The government collected a "labor exemption tax" from households liable for service and hired others to perform the duties. Previously exempt officials and landlords were now also required to pay. This reduced the burden of labor service on peasants.
4. **The Equalized Land Tax Law:** The government remeasured all land and set tax amounts based on its quality, with no exceptions for officials or landlords.
5. **The Baojia System:** The government organized peasants into household units: ten households formed a "Bao," five Bao formed a "Da Bao," and ten Da Bao formed a "Du Bao." Households with two or more adult males were required to contribute one man as a "Bao Ding" (militia member), who would practice martial arts in their spare time and be drafted into the army during wartime.
The implementation of the new laws achieved significant results, promoting production and increasing government revenue. However, they also infringed upon the interests of large landowners, provoking strong opposition from conservative factions, including high-ranking officials and major landlords. They voiced constant criticism, cursed Wang Anshi, and attacked the reforms.
Emperor Shenzong also heard these criticisms. He asked Wang Anshi, "People outside say the court fears no heavenly changes, disregards public opinion, and violates ancestral laws. What do you think?"
Wang Anshi replied, "Your Majesty diligently handles state affairs and worries about harming the people with every action—that is fearing heavenly changes. Your Majesty heeds the loyal advice of your ministers—that is considering public opinion. Moreover, one must also examine whether public opinion is reasonable. If we act reasonably, we need not fear criticism. As for ancestral laws, they have often been changed in the past and cannot be rigidly adhered to forever."
Although Wang Anshi showed no fear regarding these three criticisms, Emperor Shenzong was not so resolute. He asked Wang Anshi to make some minor adjustments to the new laws, but Wang Anshi insisted on making no changes.
In 1074 AD, a severe drought struck some areas, with no rain for ten consecutive months, forcing peasants in the disaster zones to flee. The conservatives presented Emperor Shenzong with a painting depicting these refugees, claiming, "The drought is caused by Wang Anshi's reforms. If you simply stop the reforms, it will rain."
The conservatives were mostly senior and influential ministers who had the support of Emperor Shenzong's grandmother, Empress Dowager Cao, and his mother, Empress Dowager Gao. Both dowagers wept before Emperor Shenzong, attacking the new laws by saying, "Wang Anshi has thrown the whole world into chaos."
Due to the conservatives' powerful position and intense opposition, Emperor Shenzong gradually became hesitant. Wang Anshi was forced to resign twice. After his second resignation, he remained in Jiangning Prefecture and never served in office again.
In 1083 AD, Emperor Shenzong died. His ten-year-old son, Emperor Zhezong of Song, Zhao Xu, ascended the throne. Empress Dowager Gao took control of the government and appointed Sima Guang, an opponent of the reforms, as chancellor. One by one, the new laws were abolished.